Bohol, in the Eyes of a First-Time Beholder Essay Example for Free

Bohol, in the Eyes of a First-Time Beholder Essay Perched on a very young palm tree, the tarsier fidgeted as I aimed my camera on its direction. It was only a few centimeters away, so easy to touch and yet I reminded myself to avoid the temptation. I read in an article how traumatizing it can be for these velvety creatures to be held, that they would hurt themselves to death after being â€Å"violated† by curious tourists who are never content with taking pictures. So imagine my surprise when it landed very near me to catch the cricket hiding behind the leaves. Without even thinking, I brushed my fingers on its brown fur in what seemed to be a second or two; it didn’t flinch, but the click of the camera (there was no flash since it was daytime) alerted it, and it darted back to its highest hiding place in the palm tree. Like that unlikely encounter with the tarsier, my trip to Bohol was something worthy to remember. Thanks to the invitation of a friend, poet and journalist Michael Ortega Ligalig, my memory of Bohol was not limited to beaches, Chocolate Hills, and yes, tarsiers. But there is no denying that Bohol is teeming with natural and man-made assets. If you are artsy and into culture, Bohol can offer you a lot with its cultural and historical riches. If you are into nature and adventure, there are surprises that the island can offer. Churches and Heritage Houses For somebody like me who is fascinated with old things and history, Bohol is like a gold mine with its old churches and heritage houses. Almost all of the 47 towns have old, massive, stone churches that have survived natural ravages, wars and even climate change. I asked to be brought to some of the most fascinating ones, like the Baclayon and Loboc churches. The Church of the Immaculate Conception or the Baclayon Church is one of the country’s oldest churches. First built in 1595, the Jesuit frailes built the Neoclassic structure piece by piece using adobe and coral that were joined together by adhesive made from egg whites (imagine all the chicken eggs used to build such a magnificent structure!). From the front door, one could see the marble tombstones that were embedded on the walls and pylons, the names of the dead intricately written in Spanish. The retablo or the church altar was also an imposing piece of art, though we were unable to see the church’s pipe organ. It also has a museum similar to that of San Agustin in Intramuros. The fee is not very expensive, but cameras are not allowed. Still, one can take pictures of the saints on the ground floor joining the museum and the church, where they kept a coterie of human-size religious images or statues. St. Peter Parish Church or Loboc Church is the second oldest church in Bohol. Originally built in 1602, a stronger one was built in 1638. Located near the famous Loboc River cruise, it has survived a number of floods. Inside the church, murals depicting religious events can be found on the dome right on top of the main altar. A Spanish coat-of-arms can be found near the entrance of the convent which today houses the Museo de Loboc. This museum houses a few religious images and artifacts, like registry books from the 1800s and choir books. There is also a magnificent bell tower adjacent the church. One can also find a bridge that was never completed; it would have joined the two parts of the town separated by the river, but it would mean demolishing part of the church. It is also the home of the famous Loboc Children’s Choir. There are also plenty of heritage houses all over Bohol, particularly in Baclayon and Dauis. Owned mostly by merchant families and old political clans, its interiors are characterized by wide and thick wooden floor planks and wide stairways with wooden balusters. The interiors often feature wooden sala and table sets, cabinets and dressers and rocking chairs, while the walls often hold portraits of its departed residents. Some of the houses include the ancestral houses of the Clarin, Villamor, Malon, Luza, Sofia and Abueva, and some of them actually accommodate tourists for a bed-and-breakfast experience. Beaches and Diving Bohol is getting its fair share of tourism fame with its pristine white sand beaches, the most famous of which is Panglao Island and Dauis, although there are plenty of other beaches minus the flock of tourists and expensive. The most famous is Alona Beach, an 800-meter stretch of white powdery sand located south of Panglao Island. Many full-service beach and dive resorts reside there. The sea around Pamilacan Island is frequented by whales and dolphins, as it is also a favored breeding and feeding site of tuna, snappers, groupers, mackerel and surgeonfish, making it a perfect spot for those who want to see the teeming natural fish population at work. There are a number of diving spots that offer priceless views of the sea beneath. Balicasag is known for its rare, beautiful seashells and its beds of corals are considered one of the best dive spots in the country. On the other hand, Danajon Bank is the only double barrier reef in the Philippines and is one of only three such sites in the Asia-Pacific region, spread across almost 130 kilometers of seabed and consist of three large reefs. Flora and Fauna Because of its geographical features, Bohol’s endemic flora and fauna makes it a hot spot for nature lovers. The Philippine Tarsier Sanctuary in Corella town is a 134-hectare land that has been set aside as a protected area for its most celebrated creature considered the world’s smallest primate. However, there are many mini-â€Å"tarsier zoos† that are maintained by resorts. These resorts or mini-zoos often put these tarsiers in small cages and crowded, considering the wild nature of these animals. While my friend assured me that these resorts have â€Å"adoption certificates† from the local environmental offices, I still find it disturbing to find these magnificent creatures caged like birds. In the town of Albuquerque, there is a mini-zoo that claims to hold the biggest python in captivity ever known. Its name is Prony, approximately almost 30 feet and an estimated weight of about 300 kilograms. They also have a variety of birds species like parakeets, pigeons and other avians. However, a star attraction would be the entertainer which we humorously call â€Å"Kakambal ni Prony.† Clad in shiny gaudy costumes, she would dance near the snake’s spectators. We were also fortunate to visit the Mahogany Man-Made Forest in the town of Bilar, a two-kilometer stretch of densely planted mahogany trees located in the border of Loboc and Bilar. River Cruises The ultimate part of our trip would be the scenic Loboc River Cruise. We took the nighttime cruise as my friend advised because of the lamps that would light up as our boat would pass by. The boat fee includes a buffet meal that included seafood, meat and desserts. As the boat commenced its trip, a man with his electric guitar started to sing, his repertoire including American hits from the seventies. My companions and I found the lineup rather distracting as he started with Don McLean’s Vincent then to assorted songs from Bread and Air Supply. However, as the colored lamp posts began glowing from the sides, we were already transfixed and astonished. We briefly stopped on a floating raft that has a big group of singers belting their original songs. We all got off and started clapping. I interviewed some of the children and the adults who actually make a living from the song and dance number, and it ended with them selling their very own musical CD to the tourists. The visit to Bohol was short and partly fulfilling. I am decided to pursue this island more and look forward to seeing more of its assets very, very soon.

Are Offender Profiles Useful in Police Investigations?

Are Offender Profiles Useful in Police Investigations? In recent years, there are more and more people have become increasingly fascinated by offender profiling because of the influence of media. An example of this is the well-known criminal profiling film The Silence of the Lambs, which is based on the Thomas Harris novel of the same name. Some television shows such as Millennium, Profiler and The X-Files are also based around the premise of criminal profiling. However, Hicks and Sales (2006) emphasize that these portrayals encourage the view of profiling as an art rather than a science though these profilers have academic backgrounds and law enforcement experience. The prevalence of offender profiling has grown over the past three decades (Snook, Eastwood, Gendreau, Goggin and Cullen, 2007), although studies suggest that profiles have been found to be most effective as an additional tool, not as a solution to specific crimes (Wilson, Lincon and Kocsis, 1997:2). Using offender profiling would appear to be more beneficial than relying so lely on traditional methods of detection (Ainsworth, 2001). In addition, it is important for police detectives to know which crimes are connected in order to collate and compare the information between these related cases (Egger, 1984 as cited in Rossmo, 2000). This essay will discuss the underlying assumptions of both offender profiling and case linkage, and then argue the usefulness of these practices in criminal investigations. Offender profiling has been defined by different authors using different terminologies such as specific profile analysis, psychological profiling, criminal profiling and criminal personality profiling. However, the underlying concept of definitions remains the same (Jackson and Bekerian, 1997). Beauregard, Lussier and Proulx (2005) state that offender profiling provides some descriptive information about behaviours and personality of an offender by analysing crime scene characteristics, which can narrow suspects and finally solve the cases. Muller (2000) describes the information which the criminal profiler uses is often taken from the scene of crime, and profilers will take into account some factors such as previous crime scene, weapons, behaviours and words to the victim and the geographic patterns of crime. Davies (1992 as cited in Beauregard et al., 2005) emphasizes that offender profiling is an investigative tool which focus on the analysis of offenders behaviour and accordingly infers some of the criminals personal characteristics. In Europe, offender profiling is defined as attempting to produce a description of the perpetrator(s) of a criminal offence on the basis of analysis of characteristics of the incident and other background information (Stevens, 1995: 10), and this definition is adopted by the Association of Chief Police Officers Behavioural Science Investigative Support Sub-committee in UK (Ainsworth, 2000). Although the actual process of profiling differs from one profiler to another, the aim remains the same: to deduce the behaviour, personality, and physical characteristics of the offender (Muller, 2000). According to Holmes and Holmes (1996), profiling has the following three main goals: assessing the offender from social and psychological aspects, the evaluating suspected offenders relevant possessions, and consulting with law enforcement officials about some strategies when interviewing offenders. The process of constructing a profile of an unknown offender typically includes three stages (Snook et al., 2007). Firstly, collecting crime scene data by police officers is needed and then the data will be forwarded to a profiler; secondly, the profiler starts to analyze the data which stems from the crime scene; and the last step is the predictions about the personality, behaviours, and demographic characteristics of the likely criminal (Snook et al., 2007). Snook et al. (2007) also describe that the processes of analyzing crime scene data can be classified two types: clinical and statistical in nature. Clinically oriented techniques are based on the profilers intuition, knowledge, experience, and training, in order to generate predictions. Comparing these with statistically oriented techniques, the latter predictions are based on descriptive and inferential statistical models which derive from the result of analysing offenders characteristics who have committed similar crimes previously (Snook et al., 2007). It would seem that profiling can offer more accurate results in some kinds of offence (Stevens, 1995). Hazelwood and Burgess (1995) claim that some serial rapes, murders, arson, child abusing are extraordinarily appropriate for profiling. Ainsworth (2000) suggests that murder and some serious sexual offences are the most common crimes for using offender profiling. In addition, Ainsworth (2001) comments that such serious, personal contact crimes involve attacks on strangers are the most difficult cases to solve for the police. Wilson et al. (1997) also point out that profiling is most useful in serial offences, because profilers can extrapolate and compare data from the various crime scenes. However, the FBI holds the point that property crimes and robberies probably are not suitable for profiling because sometimes these offences cannot reflect the personality of offenders (Ainsworth, 2000). Police forces are always required to focus their investigative efforts to identify crimes which committed by the same offender, because the majority of the crimes come from the minority of offenders (Woodhams and Toye, 2007). Woodhams and Toye (2007) believe that case linkage can be used to examine the likelihood of a series of offences being committed by the same unidentified offender when lacking suitable physical evidence, such as DNA evidence. Crime analysts analyze crime scene actions to consider whether there are some similarities in behaviours which committed by a common offender (Woodhams and Toye, 2007). In addition, Holmes and Holmes (2002) suggest that linkage analysis can identify connections between similar crimes committed by different offenders. Alison, Bennell, Mokros and Ormerod (2002) state that offender profiling rests on two key assumptions in order to make profiling be possible. The first one is the behavioural consistency assumption, which means if serial offenders commit similar offences, they must exhibit behavioural consistency. According to Alison et al. (2002), the variation in behaviour an offender shows must be less than the variation in behaviour by different offenders. The second assumption relies on what Mokros and Alison (2002) have termed the homology assumption, which requires that similar offence behaviour of two offenders will match similar characteristics (Goodwill and Alison, 2007). In addition, the process of case linkage also rests on two key assumptions. The first one is the offender consistency hypothesis, the same with the first assumption of profiling. The second assumption of case linkage is that there is variation in the way different criminals commit crimes (Woodhams, Bull and Hollin, 2007). Thus, for it to be possible to link crimes which committed by the same offender, criminals must behave in a stable but distinctive manner (Woodhams et al., 2007). In terms of the behavioural consistency assumption, it has been hypothesized that each person has a cognitive-affective personality system which would affect the behaviour produced in a given situation (Mischel and Shoda, 1995 as cited in Woodhams and Toye, 2007). This theory implies that when people encounter situations which have a similar psychological meaning to them, they will produce similar behaviour (Woodhams and Toye, 2007). Salfati and Bateman (2005) studied 94 variables relating to serial homicide offences which were obtained from police case files of the Homicide Investigation and Tracking System (HITS) database in Seattle, Washington of USA. They state that serial homicidal offenders are consistent across the series of homicides in their crime scene behaviours. Bennell and Canter (2002) analyzed 86 solved commercial burglaries committed by 43 offenders, they demonstrated that commercial burglary offenders are consistent in their burglary behaviours. Moreover, Santtila, J unkkila and Sandnabba (2005) studied 43 serial stranger rape cases which occurred in Finland during the years 1983-2001, they confirm that rape has a consistent thematic structure (Santtila et al. 2005: 102) instead of being a haphazard collection of behaviours. Whether offenders show more consistency in some criminal behaviour than in others also has received great scrutiny. Researchers group the specific offender behaviours into domains, comparing with others in order to investigate whether offenders show greater behavioural consistency across their series of crimes (Woodhams and Toye, 2007). Grubin, Kelly and Brunsdon (2001) imply that behaviours within the domains of control and escape are less dependent on the situation and the victims behaviour, thus, the control and escape behavioural domains show greater behavioural consistency comparing with the sex and style behavioural domains. Besides that, Bennell and Canter (2002) found that target selection and entry behaviours showed relatively consistent comparing with property stolen by studying the sample of commercial burglaries. However, Goodwill and Alison (2007) stress that the situational determinants of an offence can cause enormous variation in the way of committing the offence. In addition, Goodwill and Alison (2007) also hold the point that the behavioural inferences made about an offender across a crime series are especially vulnerable to violating (Goodwill and Alison, 2007: 824) the consistency condition. Similarly, Snook, Cullen, Bennell, Taylor and Gendreau (2008) emphasize that offender profiling approaches are based on the lacking empirical support typologies and are often based on an outdated understanding of human behaviour. In terms of the homology assumption, perhaps the empirical evidence to support this assumption is a little weak. Mokros and Alison (2002) studied the cases about the number of 100 British male stranger rapists which had some similarities in the crime scene actions. They tested whether increased similarity in offence behaviour coincided with higher resemblance in characteristics and previous convictions. The characteristics they examined including age, ethnicity, employment, education, marital status, and criminal record. They concluded that in their study, there was no evidence could prove the assumption of homology according to the relationships between crime scene and rapists characteristics. Hà ¤kkà ¤nen, Puolakka and Santtila (2004) analysed the number of 189 arsons in Finland from 1990 to 2001 by using non-metric multi-dimensional scaling procedure. In order to find the associations between crime scene actions and criminal characteristics, they divided the crime scene actions into four types: expressive-object, instrumental-object, expressive-person and instrumental-person. In terms of criminal characteristics, they also divided into four types: adolescent, self-destructive arsonist, serial arsonist and criminal. As a result, they found that offenders who committed different types of arsons with some similar characteristics. Obviously, their study failed to offer strong empirical evidence to support the homology assumption. Similarly, Doan and Snook (2008) examined the number of 87 arsons and 177 robberies, and compared the different types and the various criminal characteristics. They stressed that the evidence is low to moderate to support the homology assumption. Furthermore, Goodwill and Alison (2007) declare that the homology assumption may be in effect in some cases but not others. Furthermore, they argue that the homology assumption may be dependent on the extent to the behaviours which influenced by situational, psychological or interpersonal fac tors. In terms of the second assumption of case linkage, some studies have investigated that crimes committed by the same offender can be differentiated from crimes by different criminals. Bennell and Canter (2002) studied 86 solved commercial burglaries, they found that 43 offenders had distinct behavioural features. Bennell and Jones (2005) reported that various linking features exist in different burglaries, and this research also supports the assumption of inter-offender behavioural variation. However, the above studies indicate that the process of case linkage is not perfect and the linkage accuracy appears to vary with crime types (Woodhams et al., 2007). In contrast, Woodhams and Toye (2007) used measures of predictive accuracy which called areas under the curve (AUCs), and they found that there was high predictive accuracy in their study of burglary. It tends to be the case that both the findings of offender profiling and case linkage will be greatly useful for solving the offences in criminal investigations. Offender profiling can inform the prioritization of suspects possessing specified characteristics (Oldfield, 1997 as cited in Woodhams and Toye, 2007: 60), and case linkage can combine police investigative efforts and information from different crime scenes (Grubin, Kelly and Brunsdon, 2001). Besides that, profiles can also be used in providing interviewing skills or approaches for detectives to the potential suspect (Gudjonsson, 1992), and it is important for the trial process, because profiles can provide useful suggestions for prosecutors by assessing the accused, witnesses and juries (Wilson et al., 1997). Furthermore, Holmes and Holmes (2002) stress that linkage analysis systems not only can locate possible suspects from records of similar past offenses, but also can provide maximum information for psychological and geo graphic profiling efforts through confirming similar crimes. In spite of the usefulness of profiling and case linkage, Ainsworth (2000) is worried about that people may be over-optimistic for profiling because it has attracted such widespread public interest. Wilson and Soothill (1996) hold the point that a profile will rarely solve a crime or catch a criminal by itself, but it is designed to be an aid to the investigating police. Profiling experts also state openly that offender profiles are merely another investigative aid, they have never meant to lead exclusively to the apprehension of offenders (Ressler and Schactman, 1992 as cited in Wilson et al., 1997: 8). Furthermore, Jackson and Bekerian (1997) stress that offender profiles do not solve crimes and the answers they are offered are not solutions, accordingly, profiling should be viewed as a tool which can be extremely helpful in offering some strategies, supporting information management, and improving case understanding. Similarly, Gerberth (1995 as cited in Holmes and Holmes, 2002: 1 4) asserted that Criminal profiling is an excellent law enforcement tool. However, it is just one of many tools and does not replace good investigative techniques. Although psychologists have offered very detailed and accurate profiles in a number of famous cases (Canter, 1994), profiles do not always have dramatic and successful results (Ainsworth, 2000). To date, there have been few accurate and systematic tests to examine the exact usefulness of profiling even though some profiles have been proved to be accurate and have led to the conviction of offenders (Ainsworth, 2000). Studies suggest that although criminal profiling is being utilized by police agencies around the world, there is no strong evidence can show that the profiling is reliable, valid, or useful (Snook et al., 2007). Accordingly, many researchers are reluctant to accept criminal profiling is reliable and valuable. For example, Godwin (1978 as cited in Holmes and Holmes, 2002) asserts that profiling has little effect in solving crimes, and he even describes profiles themselves are dull and tedious. Similarly, Levin and Fox claim that profiles are of little use in identifying th e murderers, unfortunately, this tool, no matter how expertly implemented, is inherently limited in its ability to help solve crimes (Levin and Fox, 1985 as cited in Holmes and Holmes, 2002: 275). Snook et al. (2007) conducted a narrative review and analysed the published literature, they concluded that the criminal profiling relied on weak standards of proof and profilers were not better than other groups in predicting the characteristics of an unknown criminal, they even declared that the profiling was extraneous and redundant in investigations. Similarly, Snook et al. (2008) argue that criminal profiling has the potential to mislead criminal investigators, hinder the apprehension of guilty criminals and lead to wrongful convictions. It would seem that profilers can provide more accurate profiles than nonprofilers even though some of the above researchers are reluctant to see profiling as a useful tool. Pinizzotto and Finkel (1990) examined profiles which conducted by professional profilers, detectives, psychologists, and students for a series of cases. Their study found that the profiles offered by the profilers were more accurate than by all of the other groups in most cases. In the sex offender case, the profilers significantly offered more accurate items such as the gender, age, and education of the offender. In addition, their study also shows that profilers can offer richer and more detailed reports (Pinizzotto and Finkel, 1990). However, with regard to the homicide case, the detectives were significantly more accurate than the profilers in the items such as the offenders employment and residence. Kocsis and his research team compared the accuracy of professional profilers, psychologists, self-identified ps ychics, college students, and various groups of law enforcement officers. They found that the profilers provided the actual offenders in the largest number of correct predictions (Kocsis, 2003), with the accuracy rates ranging from 46 per cent to 70 per cent (Kocsis and Middledrop, 2004). However, there was a notable amount of variability within the profiler group, Kocsis and Middledrop (2004) observed that some profilers were much more accurate than others, even though the cause of the variation was still unclear, whether it was due to overall differences in the profilers skills or to specific aspects of the cases. The popularity of profiling is often seen as a measure of its success (Wilson et al., 1997). Copson (1995) shows that in UK, 29 profilers have been responsible for providing 242 instances of profiling advice between 1981 and 1994. However, Snook et al. (2008) claim that profilers always overemphasize the number of correct predictions rather than the proportion of correct predictions. Although there have been very few pieces of research which have tested both the accuracy and usefulness of profiles in live criminal cases, Copsons study Coals to Newcastle? Part 1: a study of offender profiling is one of the few studies (Ainsworth, 2001). Copsons (1995) study demonstrates that 82.6% of respondents reported that the advice they received had been useful, though only 14.1% of officers reported the profiling advice had assisted in solving the case and only 16.3% of respondents reported that the profiling advice had opened new lines of enquiry. Besides that, there are more than 50 per cent o f respondents said that the advice had offered new information for the case. In Copsons (1995) study, 126 officers (68.5%) reported that they would seek profiling advice again definitely in similar circumstances, though less than 50 per cent officers reported that they would definitely use the same profiler again in the similar situation. In addition, Pinizzotto (1984 as cited in Wilson et al., 1997) found that from 192 requests for profiles, actually only 17 per cent were used to help identify the suspects, however, 77 per cent of the respondents reported that the profiles had helped to focus on the investigation. Furthermore, in the earlier survey, Douglas (as cited in Snook et al., 2008) demonstrated that in USA, 46 per cent solved cases of the 192 instances were attributed to the offender profiling which provided by the FBI. Similarly, Jackson, van Koppen, and Herbrink (1993 as cited in Snook et al., 2008) showed that in Netherlands, five sixths of surveyed police officers reported some degree of usefulness about the profiling advice which provided by an FBI trained profiler. Another research shows that in USA, a significant portion of police officers hold the point that offender profiling has its value (Trager and Brewster, 2001 as cited in Snook et al., 2008). Similarly, Torres, Boccaccini and Miller (2006) surveyed forensic psychologists and psychiatrists through the Internet in order to examine their experiences and opinions about profiling. They found that approximately 40 per cent of these professionals feel the criminal investigative analysis is scientifically reliable or valid, and 86 per cent believe that offender profiling is a useful law enforcement tool (Torres et al., 2006). Ainsworth (2000) points out that many senior detectives do not trust the usefulness of offender profiling which provided by profilers. Copson (1995) explains that the negative views taken by senior detectives may come from the misunderstanding of profiling. Copson and Holloway (1997 as cited in Ainsworth, 2000) show that profiling helped to solve only 16 per cent of the crimes in which it was used, and identified the offender in less than 3 per cent of cases. In contrast, Ainsworth (2001) emphasizes that we should look into these figures in a little more detail because normally profiling would only be considered when the case was too difficult to be solved. Another reason is that organizations such as the FBI are reluctant to offer the figures about the successes and failures of the profiles they provide (Muller, 2000). Brittons implication that a large amount of cases have been solved by routine police work, not by offender profiling (Britton, 1997 as cited in Ainsworth, 2000). Howe ver, Canter argues that profiling has advantages in terms of the resources especially for some particular crimes comparing with that the police throw more and more resources at the crime hoping that something will turn up (Canter, 1994: 21). When evaluating the usefulness of profiling, it is necessary to take into account if the profile is seen in isolation or merely as one part of more general guidance which a psychologist might provide to investigators (Ainsworth, 2000:119). Muller (2000) also emphasizes that although some profiles may lead the wrong directions to the investigation, this may only be a problem if the police place a greater amount of faith in the profile than they do in their own investigative skills (Muller, 2000: 259). Another problem should be concerned is that when evaluating the accuracy of a profile, police officers are excessively subjective (Kocsis, 2003). Smith and Alison (2001 as cited in Kocsis, 2003) found that police officers were unable to discern the difference in the amount of accurate information in two profiles, and they tended to interpret ambiguous statements by their own subjective intentions. Kocsis and Hayes investigated the perceptions of police officers concerning the utility and accuracy of the profile, also found that perception of the accuracy of a profile is quite likely to be associated with the readers perception regarding the identity of its author (Kocsis and Hayes, 2003 as cited in Kocsis, 2003: 129). Kocsis and Middledorp (2004) examined a sample of 353 participants in order to explore Kocsis and Hellers findings that the relationship between ones belief of a profile and the perceived accuracy of that profile. Kocsis and Middledorp (2004) found that there is a posit ive relationship between belief and perceived accuracy. They point out that the extent accuracy which participants perceive depending on their beliefs in profiling. Ainsworth (2001) also suggests that the dangers of the self-fulfilling prophecy should be concerned because police officers have the cognizant sense that any psychological profile may fit some individuals, which leads to the inaccuracy. Psychologists will tend to be focus on the probabilities of offence; in contrast, the police officers tend to operate in terms of guilt or innocence (Ainsworth, 2001). It would seem that it is difficult to assess the accuracy and the value of profiles. One important issue should be considered is that whether profiling can bring new information to an enquiry or whether the profiling can confirm those cases which the police already suspected (Ainsworth, 2001). Ainsworth (2001) implies that in many cases, it is difficult to discern the new material because there may be an overlap between the information which the profiler offers and that which has already been collected by the police. In some cases, although the profilers advice may not be seem as the new information, profilers input may help police prioritize the information which they are considering (Ainsworth, 2001). Moreover, the value of profiling may depend on different cases. For example, profilers can offer deeper insights of some more serious forms of mental illness and some sexual assault cases than non-experts and some police who have little previous experience about those cases (Ainsworth , 2001). In conclusion, the future of psychological profiling and case linkage appear promising, research seems to be supporting the underling assumptions of these practices even though there have been few systematic and accurate studies to test the exact usefulness of offender profiling and case linkage. In terms of the homology assumption, the empirical evidence is especially weak to support it. Profiling as an additional tool plays an important role in criminal investigations, especially in serial offences. Studies suggest that profilers can provide more accurate profiles than nonprofilers. Case linkage provides a good way to collate and compare the information between related cases, thus, investigative efforts can be combined and officers can avoid the repetition of investigations. Most police officers would seek profiling advice and case linkage because of the agreement of their usefulness. However, over-optimistic vision of profiling and case linkage should be concerned because they do not always have dramatic and successful results even though many solved cases were attributed to offender profiling and case linkage. Finally, profiling and case linkage are useful tools and cannot replace the other good investigative techniques.

The Factors Affecting Teacher Motivation

The Factors Affecting Teacher Motivation The literature review is integral to the success of academic research. It ensures the researchability of the topic. It is designed to identify related research, to set the current research project within a conceptual and theoretical context. A literature review is a systematic, explicit and reproducible method for identifying evaluating and interpreting the existing body of recorded work produced by researches, scholars and practitioners, (Fink, 1998, p.3). The review (Mouton, 2001) helps to place the research in the context of what has already been done, thus, allowing comparisons to be made. It is a critical summary and assessment of the range of existing materials dealing with knowledge and understanding in a given field. Its main purposes are as follows: to locate the research project, to provide a rationale for the research, forming its context or background, to provide insights into previous work, and to identify a gap, a problem in the existing literature and thus providing a framework for further research. A review of literature also contributes to the development of the researchers intellectual capacity and practical skills as it engenders a research attitude, thus encouraging the researcher to think rigorously. Time and effort carefully spent at this particular stage helps to save a great deal of effort and vague search. Another purpose of reviewing the literature is to analyse the different methodologies and data collection methods used by previous researchers in similar issues. This would help the researcher to identify the various strengths and lacunas of the used methods. A thorough review of literature may enable the researcher to answer the several pertinent questions. 2.1: INTRODUCTION A study of teachers motivation consists of two main themes. The first one identifies the different factors affecting teachers motivation, while the second aspect analyses how the school heads can impact on teachers motivation through their leadership. This chapter explains the importance of teacher motivation. The motivational factors for teachers, applying literature findings are reviewed. 2.2: Importance of teacher motivation Schools exist, primarily to educate children. It is for this purpose that teachers are employed in schools (Fiddler Atton, 1997). Teachers are, thus, the most important professionals for any nations future. However, without adequate support and resources, teachers will not be motivated although they may be highly qualified. It is sad to note that teachers, the most valuable human resource, are often neglected (Abdo, 2001). One should bear in mind that a nations strength depends on the high quality of its education system and the strength of such a system, in turn, relies on qualified and motivated teachers. Inspired and motivated are essential in providing quality education. Schools would definitely not survive without motivated and dedicated teachers. 2.3: Factors affecting teachers motivation Research (Eimers, 1997) has shown that teachers are influenced by both intrinsic and extrinsic factors. Further studies on motivation for teaching distinguished between intrinsic, extrinsic and altruistic reasons for choosing the profession (Kyriacou Coulthard, 2000; Moran, Kilpatrick, Abbott, Dallat, McClune, 2001). Intrinsically motivated teachers are focused on teaching and the activity related to the job itself. The inherent satisfaction or the joy of teaching is viewed as the driving force. The extrinsically motivated teachers focus on the benefits of teaching, such as salary, vacations or other external rewards connected to the job. Finally, the altruistically motivated teacher views teaching as a socially worthwhile and important job, and has a desire to be part of young peoples growth and development. Barmby (2006, p. 253) extrapolated these findings and points out that teachers motivation is influenced less by externally initiated factors such as salary, educational policy and reform and conditions of service, than by those emanating from the intrinsic context within which they work. According to Hallinger and Heck (1998), school leaders can play a critical role in the success of educational institutions. To the extent that school leaders can control the outcomes of teachers efforts, they can influence the levels of motivation teachers experience (Silver, 1982). This can be through their influence on teachers morale and motivation. Studies have lent proof (Hallinger and Heck, 1998; Leithwood and Jantzi, 2005; Leithwood and Mascall, 2008) that School leadership affects the way teachers teach, and hence, impact directly on student performance. Since school leaders can, in one way or the other, affect the intrinsic factors listed, they, thus, play an extremely role in motivating teachers. Indeed, in an attempt to study teachers motivation, Pitre (2003) found significant relationship between school leadership and teacher motivation. A school head should not only be an effective leader, manager and counselor, but also an effective motivator. Motivated teachers are productive teachers (Osterloh, Bruno and Frost, 2001) as they have job satisfaction. School leaders should bear in mind that without these, educational programmes may be deeply weakened (Snowden and Gorton, 2002). This is supported by Browns study (2005), which found significant link between political, local and organisational factors and the use of incentives to motivate teachers in charter schools. Motivation was higher where more external incentives were provided. In fact, School leadership and Teacher Motivation are two things that are inextricably linked. 2.4 Importance of leadership in schools For much of the twentieth century, the role of the school head was that of manager, where he/she was expected to manage personnel and budget, while handling other operational issues (Usdan, McCloud, Podmostko, 2000). Studies on the topic suggest that in the past, principals were able to succeed, at least partially, by simply carrying out the directives of central administrators (Perez et al. 1999). Today, in a rapidly changing era of standards-based reform, as education moved into a new era of accountability, a different concept has emerged. According to Dussault and Barnett (1996), educational organisations are facing many challenges and this shift brings with it dramatic changes in what public education needs from principals. School principals must, therefore, enhance the quality of their services; they can no longer function simply as building managers, tasked with adhering to district rules, carrying out regulations and avoiding mistakes. Management by principals is no longer en ough to meet todays educational challenges (Mulford, 2003). Researchers (Dussault and Barnett, 1996) claim that the actual situations in schools call for improvement and educational leadership. As Cawelti (1984, p.3) stated: Continuing research on effective schools has verified the common sense observation that schools are rarely effective, in any sense of the word, unless the principal is a good leader . 2.4.1 School leadership and effective schools School leadership (Huber, 2004), indeed, has a pivotal role in contributing to effective schools. Gurr, Drysdale, and Mulford (2005) found in their case study research on Australian principals that the principal remains an important and significant figure in determining the success of a school (p. 548). Extensive empirical efforts have shown that leadership is a central factor for the quality and effectiveness of a school (Reynolds, 1976; Harris, 2005). The research results show that each and every successful school possesses a competent and sound school leadership. Research (Barber, 1995; Mortimore, Sammons, Stoll, Lewis and Ecob, 1988; Stoll and Fink, 1996) has shown that leadership, in fact, defines the success of a school. According to Leithwood, Day, Sammons, Hopkins and Harris (2006, p. 14-15), there is not a single documented case of a school successfully turning around its pupil achievement trajectory in the absence of talented leadership. In this line of thought, Leithwood, Louis, Anderson Wahlstrom (2004) claimed that while classroom instruction has the greatest impact on student achievement, leadership has the second greatest effect. The role of the school leader has to be seen in relationship to the context in which the school is operating. Schools are embedded in the education system and their local communities; leaders, therefore, have to react to, cope with and support the development of the community served by their respective schools. Huber (1997) firmly believes that school leaders matter, they are educationally-significant, school leaders do make a difference. Given the manifold tasks and responsibilities of school leadership, as well as the competencies required, school leaders may be regarded as superheroes. Their complex role can hardly be filled with traditional leadership concepts (Huber, 2004). Educational leaders are now confronted with an altogether new range of demands and challenges. They should bear in mind that their organisations have been set up to accomplish a specific social aim, shaping the society. The quality of education provided at school, therefore, determines the future society. Moreover, school leadership proved to be important for the learning environment for teachers in schools (James McCormick, 2009; Louis, Dretzke, Wahlstrom, 2010). 2.4.2 Successful and effective School leadership 2.4.2.1 Firm and purposeful leadership It has been proven that all aspects of the school rely on a proper School Leader (Stoll and Fink, 1996; Huber, 2004; Mortimore et al., 1988). However, both the School Leader and individual teachers are of utmost importance. Leithwood, in concert with others (Leithwood et al., 2004; Leithwood and Riehl, 2003; Leithwood et al., 2006), identified four broad categories of educational leadership, or core practices: setting directions; developing people; redesigning the organization; and managing the instructional program. At the same time, effective leaders know that the ability to lead and manage organisational change is critical for survival since the school environment is a dynamic one. School Leaders should incorporate the ability to deal with changes occurring in school system structure, especially when more responsibilities are being thrusted upon the shoulders of the School Leader by the educational system. According to Calabrese (2002) the prototype school leader in the 21st century is a change agent. They have a responsibility to lead change that results in more effective and efficient educational practices, in an environment that is increasingly political. Therefore, outstanding school heads should be proactive. They must make the change happen without alienating the teaching staffs. They should act as mediators between those resisting changes (Levine and Lezotte, 1990) and the change agents. Leaders, thus, got a key role in inducing others to adopt change in order to improve the organisational effectiveness. Hence, school leaders, are key to initiate and maintaining the school improvement process (Sammons et al., 1994c). Schools, expected to fulfill multi-dimensional functions, are affected by both internal and external environmental factors (Eres, 2011). School leaders can eliminate the negative effects of such factors. Thus, they need to be proactive, anticipating problems and should be prepared to counteract these efficiently and effectively. The role of the School Leader is not always clearly defined since leading and managing are two intermingling responsibilities. 2.4.3 School leadership and teachers motivation Leadership can be defined as the ability to enlist, mobilize and motivate others to apply their abilities and resources to a given cause (Eyal and Roth, 2010). This capacity is fundamental in the educational sphere. Very often, educators think in terms of motivating students to learn. Equally important, though, with respect to educational leadership is the motivation of teachers (Silver, 1982). According to Kocabas and Karakose (2002), teachers are responsible to their schools and the principals are in turn responsible for the proper administration of the school. Therefore, the main responsibility for motivating teachers falls to the school head. Along this line, Barker (2001) studied poor performers and effective principals and suggested that effective leaders indeed motivate the staff. He claimed that the latter should be there to enthuse and invigorate teachers rather than to shape them. Good leadership improves both teacher motivation and work settings. Further research by Kiziltepe (2006) found that the primary source of teachers de-motivation was the administration Though, the relationship between School leadership and Teacher Motivation have not directly been subject to much research, Brown and Hughes (2008) highlight the importance of exploring the different factors that motivate teachers, as society increasingly holds them accountable for student achievement. The relationship between school leadership and teacher motivation is related in the research literature to the attempt to better understand principals impact on school performance (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2005; Leithwood and Mascall, 2008; Supovitz, Sirinides and May, 2010). Thus teachers engagement and their motivation have been studied mostly as a mediating factor between school leadership and students learning (Hallinger and Heck, 1998). According to Sharpe, Klockow Martin (2002), the factors motivating teachers can vary from classroom to classroom, school to school, or district to district. If teachers are not motivated to teach, then the search for educational excellence will be ava il (Richardson, Short Prickett, 2003). 2.4.3.1: How can School leaders affect teachers motivation Several studies suggest that school leadership is second only to classroom teaching as an influence on student learning (Leithwood, Harris, Hopkins, 2008; Leithwood Jantzi, 2008) and that key to optimizing student learning is the influence exerted by school leaders on teacher motivation and commitment (Day, Stobart, Sammons, Kington, Gu, 2006; Leithwood Mascall, 2008). According to studies (Hallinger and Heck, 1996), school leadership affects students outcomes indirectly, by creating the conditions that support teachers ability to teach and students learning. Teachers motivation includes the expenditure of effort to achieve a goal (Martin, 2000). It is also about creating forces that power and drive their respective behaviours (Bursalioglu, 2002). Dull (1981) believes that school leaders could motivate teachers by improving a situation perceived to be difficult by an individual, thereby meeting needs. In addition, the school leader can also motivate teachers by providing adequate d riving forces to urge one into action (Genc, 1987). The human factor should not be ignored, the educational leader should strive in developing a physiological and psychological process which takes into account individual desires, goals, tendencies, behaviour, self-interest, preference, will-power and drive. He/she should be considerate, that is, consider both intrinsic and extrinsic forces that actuate, direct and maintain staff behaviours (Gursel, 1997). Motivating teachers also implies increasing the latters willingness to work and making them believe that they will satisfy their personal needs if they work efficiently in the school (Yuksel, 1998), by providing the appropriate conditions. Porter, Polikoff, Goldring, Murphy, Elliot and May (2010) claims that these conditions include high standards for student learning, rigorous curricula, quality instruction, a culture of learning and above all- professional behaviour. Indeed, scholarly writings have linked the above mentioned conditions with increased teacher motivation to exert extra effort in teaching (Geisel, Sleegers, Leithwood and Jantzi, 2003). They added that school leadership has a key role in ensuring these conditions at school. Geisel et al. (2003) also mentioned that schools are effective only when the whole school community work as a whole and not as fragmented units. Thus, the school leaders should not only occupy the authority position but should also be visible (Dinham, Cariney, Craigie and Wilson, 1995) in the institution, so as to be able to motivate their staffs. 2.4.3.1.1: Visible leadership Indeed, Dinham et al. (1995) found that secondary school principals responsibilities include being visible, maintaining contact with student groups, keeping open lines of communication with stakeholders, promoting a positive school climate, being aware and in control of all school issues, influencing the school tone, and fostering school pride. According to further studies (Huber, 1997), teachers recognize it is highly motivating when their school head is involved in the daily routine. The school leader, showing dedicated interest in what happens in the class itself, is much appreciated. Teachers have a high esteem for leaders knowing about the curriculum and who are actively involved in monitoring students progress. Robinson (2006) points out that school leaders who have subject specific knowledge will be more confident and successful in supporting improvement in teachers practice. No doubt, teachers find it highly motivating when the principal provides a variety of support, includi ng practical assistance and encouragement (Murphy, 1989). This involves frequent movement through the school, class visits as well as some informal exchange with the teaching staff (Teddlie et al., 1989). According to Scheerens (1992), this is one of the pillars of school leadership and such regular interactions could also help in assessing the ways teachers work. 2.4.1 Relationship between school leader and teachers Davis et al. (2002) argue that the relationship between school leaders and teachers is very important: the school leaders regard for others is, key, to motivating teachers. Being in charge of the school administration, school leaders have the greatest share in motivating teachers. According to Griffin (2010), relationships with administrators were rated as a highly motivating factor. This is supported by Asbill and Gonzalez (2000) who found a relationship between positive principal-teacher interactions and teacher job satisfaction. Egley (2003) found similar results and emphasized the importance of a supportive principal-teacher relationship. School leaders (Barnett and McCormick, 2003) must be able to create an environment conducive to the building of positivity, providing the platform for the staff to maintain good relations, so as to create a healthy environment, where all can grow adequately. Wallace (2010) further claimed that school leadership should also include some emotional dimension. She posited that school leaders who understand the emotional context in which they work will provide a more satisfying and effective work context for teachers. They highlighted that working in a classroom environment where there is administrative support enhances the element of respect. Indeed, interviews by Sederberg and Clark (1990) showed that teachers perceive respect as the most important incentive, followed by trust, optimism and intentionality. Further research (Geisel et al., 2003) has shown that certain methods adopted by the School leadership indeed impact on the level of teacher motivation, for instance, defining a clear vision and objectives. Shared vision and goals Scholars (Eyal and Roth, 2010; Barnett and McCormick, 2002) posited that vision potentially offers the greatest capacity to influence teachers motivation. Lashway (2000) added that school principals should ensure that this vision is relevant to the school context. The leaders vision must also be related to the existing needs and culture of the school (Keedy, 1991). In addition, it must be focused, consistent, at the same time, including short term as well as long term objectives (Geisel et al., 2003). These help define and promote high expectations; and they connect directly with teachers and the classroom. Barnett and McCormicks (2003) findings echoed the above researchers ideas and even extrapolated those- they concluded that teachers should, at all cost, share the schools vision. This is because vision provides personal goals for the teacher, a desire to see a change in the future. The staff should be able to connect to the vision when it is clearly defined, so that, their own personal objectives may sprout out from it. Their studies have shown that teachers are highly motivated when they build consensus on the aims and values of the school. In such cases, teachers can put these into practice through collaborative and consistent of working. Empirical evidence (Leithwood and Riehl, 2003; Ylimaki, 2006) proved that vision creates a sense of purpose that binds teachers together and propels them to fulfill their deepest aspirations and to reach ambitious goals. Indeed, Brewers rese arch (1993) showed that student achievement levels were higher in schools where the principal had hired like-minded teachers who shared the principals goals and who were able to implement effectively the principals vision. Other researchers (Lee and Smith, 1994) analyzed performance from 820 secondary schools and found that coherent, sustained, and focused reforms resulted in the best outcomes for students. Therefore, effective professional principals (Huber, 1997, 2004) should relentlessly work to improve achievement by focusing on defining SMART goals. However, scholars (Gagne and Deci, 2005; Sheldon, Turban, Brown, Barrick and Judge, 2003) claimed that presenting followers with a value-laden vision is not enough. Leading professional No doubt, implementing a vision is not instantaneous; it requires repeated cycles of reflection, evaluation, and response, and only the principal can sustain it (Lashway, 1997). Sheldon et al. (2003) posited that the leadership role played by the school principal is critical in ensuring the vision and mission is attained. Thus, principals need to wear many different hats during the school day. But, the most effective school principals are not only managers and disciplinarians but also instructional leaders for the school (Leithwood and Mascall, 2008). Their studies showed that an effective school leader is not merely a good administrator or manager, but also a leading professional- a transformational leader. According to Burns (1978) transformational leadership is the process in which leaders and their followers bring each other to a higher level of ethic and motivation. Todays schools, therefore, want not only visionary and professional leaders (Lashway, 2000), but transformational ones. Transformational Leadership and motivation Leithwood (1992) claimed that transformational leadership is, actually, the restructuring of the system in order for the mission and vision of people to be redefined. It also ensures that the staff identifies themselves with the goals of the organisation, together with enlisting the participation of the staffs by taking into consideration their opinion greatly provide the scope for motivation. Bass (1990) suggested that motivation is, in fact, a sub-dimension of transformational leadership. Other scholars (Simola, Barling and Turner, 2010; Park and Rainey, 2008) also concluded that motivation has been shown to be an inspiring component of such kind of leadership and these have shown a positive relationship between transformational leadership and motivation. Indeed, Bass and Avolio (1997) have argued that transformational leadership can produce extraordinary outcomes in terms of increased commitment to achieving group or organisational goals. Coupled with the above, Shamir, House and Arthur (1993), maintained that transformational leaders also foster intrinsic motivations related to self concept. Their theory of leadership asserted that charismatic leaders promote followers intrinsic motivation to act beyond their self-esteem, self value and social identification. Research has shown a positive relationship between transformational leadership and motivation. It has been proved that in an organisation with transformational leaders, there is higher productivity and that the employees are happier and there are fewer negative incidents (Robbins, 1996). Indeed, transformational Leadership plays an important role in developing self-motivation. Leaders increase their workers motivation through their behaviour (Bass, 1990, Greenberg and Baron, 2000). As the human relations and communicative skills of a transformational leader are developed, they are effective in persuading and directing their followers (Glad and Blanton, 1997). They also motivate followers to transcend their own immediate self-interest for the sake of the mission and vision of the organisation. The leader motivates followers to work for transcendental goals instead of immediate self-interest, for achievement and self-actualisation rather than safety and security (Murray Feitler, 1989, p. 3), and creates within followers a capacity to develop higher levels of commitment to organisational goals (Leithwood Jantzi, 2000). Followers confidence levels are raised and their needs broadened by the leader to support development to higher potential. Such total engagement (emotional, intellectual and moral) encourages followers to develop and perform beyond expectations (Bass, 1985; Burns, 1978). 2.3.5.1 Transformational and Transactional School leadership Basss model (1998) of transformational and transactional leadership has a number of important implications for the current reform movement in education. According to Bass and Avolio (1997), the transformational/transactional approach builds trust, respect, and a wish on the part of followers to work collectively toward the same desired future goals. This not only allows the transformational leader to operate effectively within the available context, but to change it, to make it more receptive to her or his own leadership orientation. Indeed, a positive relationship has been found (Howell and Hall- Merenda, 1999) between transformational leadership and a good rapport between the leader and follower. Applying this to schools, Avolio and Bass (1988) argue that although transactional and transformational leadership can represent two discrete forms of leadership, effective school principals exhibit characteristics of both by maintaining short-term endeavors through transactional leadership and by inciting change as a transformational leader. A number of studies emphasize the importance of transformative leadership for school principals (Fullan 1996; Hord 1992; Leithwood, Tomlinson Genge 1996; Wood 1998; Sergiovanni 1992; Conley 1997; Perez et al. 1999; Reed and Roberts 1998). Transformational school leadership and teacher motivation Contemporary middle school leaders have a vast array of responsibilities and are often characterized as those who should be transformational leaders (Sanzo et al., 2010). The challenges brought to schools by restructuring have been cited as reasons for advocating transformational leadership in schools. Such leadership embraces a postmodern way of thinking. It is argued that transformational leadership is well suited to the challenges of current school restructuring. It has the potential for building high levels of commitment (in teachers) to the complex and uncertain nature of the school reform agenda and for fostering growth in the capacities teachers must develop to respond positively to this agenda (Leithwood and Jantzi, 1997). Transformational leadership is seen to be sensitive to organisation building, developing shared vision, distributing leadership and building school culture necessary to current restructuring efforts in schools (Leithwood, Jantzi and Stainbach, 1999). Transformational School leadership: the four Is and teacher motivation Leithwood and Jantzi (1990) have defined transformational leadership based on schools. Transformational leadership dimensions, namely, idealized influence, inspirational motivation and intellectual stimulation, were found to directly influence teachers amount of motivation (Geisel et al., 2003; Leithwood and Jantzi, 2005). These, in turn, had an indirect impact on students achievements and learning (Leithwood and Jantzi, 2005). Individualised attention-Teachers needs and expectations Individualised attention (Blasà © and Kirby, 2000) given to the staff, greatly adds up to teacher motivation. According to Blasà © and Kirby (2000), it is of upmost importance for leaders to identify teachers needs- the social needs should not be neglected (Bursalioglu, 2002), and their feelings about their jobs. School leaders have to be conscious of the fact that each person has different needs and, therefore, should be motivated accordingly. Weller (1982) added that the school principal should be sympathetic to the needs of their teachers. The leaders should be able to cater for the needs of each and every one. According to Adair (2002), a leader, who is not aware of these, and who does not display effort to fulfill these, will definitely face difficulties in motivating teachers. He added that only a well-informed leader can devise and implement effective strategies to assist teachers in their development, ensuring they perform their respective duties in an effective, enthusiast ic and motivated manner. Blasà ©, Derick and Stahth (1986) reported that principals initiating structure and displaying consideration were associated with more satisfying work conditions, higher job satisfaction, and less job stress. Staffs experience of job stress was seen as principals lack of consideration and was related to teacher dissatisfaction. It was found that teachers (Blasà © et al., 1986) are less likely to share their views and opinions, or trying to improve the conditions if they feel that their school heads are not enough caring. Blasà © (1986) put forward that the latter should strive to develop fruitful relationships with the teaching staff, fostering positive communication with and among teachers. It is only through these relationships that they can establish leader legitimacy and encouraged commitment. Teachers should feel that they form part of the school community and not simply as employees working in the school. The motivation for working with the subject matter in which teachers have their academic degree and the wish to teach it to others are important motivators for teachers both before and upon completion of the PGCE course (Roness Smith, 2009, 2010). Still, we find that the subject-matter interest is a salient and stable motivator among these Norwegian teachers, a finding which aligns with other international research (Kyriacou et al., 1999; Manuel Brindley, 2005; Manuel Hughes, 2006). A plausible reason for these results can be that when starting teacher education, the students regard themselves as subject-matter specialists. Idealised influence Idealised influence is the charismatic element of transformational leadership, in which leaders, become role models, who are admired, respected and emulated by their followers (Avolio and Bass, 2002; Bass, 1998; Bass and Avolio, 1994). As a result, followers demonstrate a high degree of trust in such leaders (Jung and Avolio, 2000). Researchers (Jung and Avolio, 2000) added that shared vision, is, an integral component of this idealized transformational role, inspiring acceptance through the alignment of goals. Principals must, therefore, be good role models supporting best practice (Colley, 2002).

A Midsummer Night?s Dream :: essays research papers

A Midsummer Night’s Dream   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Shakespeare’s A Midsummer Night’s Dream is a comedy that is full of mischief. Instead of having a main plot, it seems to be about random thoughts and emotions (much the same as dreams are). In fact, I have to wonder how much of the whole play is really supposed to be a dream – as Puck even suggests toward the end of the play. There is no real protagonist to latch onto in this play, probably because there are three main groups of characters, but many people will find Puck to be the most interesting character. The whole play is based around Puck's antics, and he seems to be the play's main fool. In addition, it is he who sends everyone on hard (but funny) adventures. Puck is a fool in the true sense of the word during the time of this play - someone that entertains for his master. It was Puck’s job in this play to entertain the fairy king Oberon. I picture Puck as wearing a funny hat and pointed toe shoes. Another fool in this play would be Nick Bottom, but he is a fool in the present-day sense of the word. Bottom is not the type of fool who entertains his master. He is a fool because he allows his own idiocy and ego to stop him from accomplishing his goals, and he is totally unaware of how ridiculous he looks. Nick Bottom always thinks he is the best at everything. Even when Puck gave Bottom the head of a donkey, it didn’t change his inflated opinion of himself. This play begins when the duke of Athens (Theseus) is preparing for his marriage to the queen of the Amazons (Hippolyta). He is planning a four-day celebration for the occasion. As time goes on, there are so many twists and turns in the play that it is sometimes hard to keep things sorted out. In one part of the play, Puck is sent to find a magical flower that is thought to contain a love potion. The juice of this flower can be spread over a sleeping person’s eyelids to make that person fall in love with the first thing he or she sees when waking up. What happens with the love potion is very funny, because Puck manages to have it affect the wrong two people and then nothing turns out as it should.

Clash of Belief Systems in Hawthornes The Scarlet Letter Essay example

Clash of Belief Systems  in The Scarlet Letter  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Each person bases their judgment of others upon their own values or belief systems. These values or belief systems are influenced by experiences in the home and at school. The prevailing culture in an area has a tremendous impact on the belief systems of the child as well.   It is easy for a child to learn the difference between right and wrong, but they may fail to grasp the fact that the values they are taught are filtered through the belief systems of those who teach. Hawthorne judges the characters in The Scarlet Letter by using his own belief systems - drastically different from those of the Puritans. Instead of the stern, harsh values of the Puritans, Hawthorne sees life through the eyes of a Romantic. He judges each person accordingly, characterizing each person's sin as the pardonable sin of nature or the unpardonable sin of the human soul. One can infer, by the writing style, that Hawthorne is most forgiving to Hester. He writes about Hester with a feeling of compassion that the descriptions of the other characters lack. Hawthorne approves of Hetser's feeling, vitality, and thirst to overcome the iron shackles of binding society. He shows us that although Hester is not permitted to express her feelings verbally because of social persecution, there is no one that can restrain the thoughts of the human mind.   Hawthorne, being a romantic and man of nature himself, can relate to this. If one were to look up the human mating characteristics in a science book one might be shocked or surprised.   The human instinct is to have more than one partner not to stay loyal to one partn... ...rew emaciated his voice, still rich and sweet had a melancholy prophecy of decay in it he was often observed on a slight alarm or other sudden accident, to put his hand over his heart, with first a flush and then paleness, indicative of pain. (119)    Hawthorne is a romantic and has the personality of one. He is most forgiving to Hester because she is a Romantic person. She lives in a society many years before her time, but she is strong willed and fights society’s disdain to overcome her own sin. Hawthorne places Dimmsdale somewhere amidst the foggy middle, between these two characters. Dimmsdale is   there because he commits no direct sin. By not telling anyone of his secret sin he causes the pain for himself and Hester. He clearly characterizes Chilingworth as the least pardonable because he commits the sin of the heart, the soul, and of God.    Clash of Belief Systems in Hawthorne's The Scarlet Letter Essay example Clash of Belief Systems  in The Scarlet Letter  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      Each person bases their judgment of others upon their own values or belief systems. These values or belief systems are influenced by experiences in the home and at school. The prevailing culture in an area has a tremendous impact on the belief systems of the child as well.   It is easy for a child to learn the difference between right and wrong, but they may fail to grasp the fact that the values they are taught are filtered through the belief systems of those who teach. Hawthorne judges the characters in The Scarlet Letter by using his own belief systems - drastically different from those of the Puritans. Instead of the stern, harsh values of the Puritans, Hawthorne sees life through the eyes of a Romantic. He judges each person accordingly, characterizing each person's sin as the pardonable sin of nature or the unpardonable sin of the human soul. One can infer, by the writing style, that Hawthorne is most forgiving to Hester. He writes about Hester with a feeling of compassion that the descriptions of the other characters lack. Hawthorne approves of Hetser's feeling, vitality, and thirst to overcome the iron shackles of binding society. He shows us that although Hester is not permitted to express her feelings verbally because of social persecution, there is no one that can restrain the thoughts of the human mind.   Hawthorne, being a romantic and man of nature himself, can relate to this. If one were to look up the human mating characteristics in a science book one might be shocked or surprised.   The human instinct is to have more than one partner not to stay loyal to one partn... ...rew emaciated his voice, still rich and sweet had a melancholy prophecy of decay in it he was often observed on a slight alarm or other sudden accident, to put his hand over his heart, with first a flush and then paleness, indicative of pain. (119)    Hawthorne is a romantic and has the personality of one. He is most forgiving to Hester because she is a Romantic person. She lives in a society many years before her time, but she is strong willed and fights society’s disdain to overcome her own sin. Hawthorne places Dimmsdale somewhere amidst the foggy middle, between these two characters. Dimmsdale is   there because he commits no direct sin. By not telling anyone of his secret sin he causes the pain for himself and Hester. He clearly characterizes Chilingworth as the least pardonable because he commits the sin of the heart, the soul, and of God.   

Thermodynamics of the Dissolution Borax

Thermodynamics of the Dissolution of Borax Lina Jawadi Objectives: * Study a system of salt and water solution. * Determining a variety of important thermodynamics quantities from the solubility information at various temperatures. Background: The salt and water solution in this experiment has relatively simple solubility equilibrium of borax in water. Na2B4O7 . 10 H2O 2Na + + B4O5(OH)42- + 8H2O This reaction is an equilibrium process and 8 water molecules from the hydrated salt are lost to the reaction medium. The equilibrium constant expression for this reaction is:K = [Na+]2 [B4O5(OH)42-] [H2O]8 [Na2B4O7 . 10 H2O] In this experiment we will always make sure there is some solid borax remaining in the sample mixture before removing some of it to analyze it. Therefore, we can assume that the concentration of solid borax is constant. In addition, the water molecules which were originally part of the borax’s crystalline matrix is lost to the sample mixture; however, it doesnâ₠¬â„¢t significantly affect the concentration of the water. The equilibrium constant expression can now be simplified to become: K = [Na+]2 [B4O5(OH)42-]The first equilibrium expression and the balanced solubility equilibrium reaction allow us to express either borate ion or sodium ion in terms of the other. So, it is possible to determine the constant in terms of either ion. After substituting borax ion in place of the sodium ion, ([Na+] = 2 [B4O5(OH)42-] , K = (2 [B4O5(OH)42-] )2 * [B4O5(OH)42-] ) we get: K = 4 [B4O5(OH)42-]3 . Finding the concentration of borate ion in any sample at any given temperature gives us the solubility product at that temperature. Equipment: * 5mL pipet * Test tubes * Marker * Hot plate * 250 mL beaker * Flask Electric balance Procedure: 1. Using the pipet add 5mL of distilled water to 10 test tubes. 2. Mark the level with the marker and pour the water out. Mark the test tube with the assigned temperature. 3. Weigh 30-32g of solid sodium borate decahydrat e (borax) in a 250 mL beaker and then add 150 mL of water. 4. Place the mixture on a hot plate, but don’t allow its temperature to exceed 50oC. 5. After all the borax dissolves, add more and let the temperature reach 45oC. 6. Once it starts slightly exceeding 45oC, remove it from the hot plate and place instead a beaker filled with 150 mL of distilled water. . Continue stirring the mixture until it reaches the desired temperature. 8. Quickly pour 5 mL of the mixture in two test tube without transferring any solid borax. (record the temperature before and after the transfer. ) 9. When the water bath reaches 45oC, place the test tube in it until precipitation of borax has dissolved. 10. In a flask with 50-75 mL of water and 10 drops of bromocresol green indicator, add 125 mL of the borax solution. 11. Before titrating the borax with acid make sure that it has a blue color.Using buret filled with 50 mL oh HCl, add the acid to the borax until it reaches the endpoint, which is whe n the solution turns from a blue color to a yellow. Record the initial and final volume. (For calculations: find the moles of borax using the volume of HCl and its molarity. Then find the solubility product constant and plot the ksp vs. (1/t) graph and from it obtain the values of ? H and ? S. Make sure the temperature is in kelvin when doing the calculations. Finally, find the value of ? G using both equations and plot the ? G vs. time graph. )

Peer and Self Assessment

Assessing Learning Peer and Self Assessment Peer Assessment One of the ways in which students internalize the characteristics of quality work is by evaluating the work of their peers. However, if they are to offer helpful feedback, students must have a clear understanding of what they are to look for in their peers' work. The instructor must explain expectations clearly to them before they begin. One way to make sure students understand this type of evaluation is to give students a practice session with it. The instructor provides a sample writing or speaking assignment. As a group, students determine what should be assessed and how criteria for successful completion of the communication task should be defined. Then the instructor gives students a sample completed assignment. Students assess this using the criteria they have developed, and determine how to convey feedback clearly to the fictitious student. Students can also benefit from using rubrics or checklists to guide their assessments. At first these can be provided by the instructor; once the students have more experience, they can develop them themselves. An example of a peer editing checklist for a writing assignment is given in the popup window. Notice that the checklist asks the peer evaluator to comment primarily on the content and organization of the essay. It helps the peer evaluator focus on these areas by asking questions about specific points, such as the presence of examples to support the ideas discussed. For peer evaluation to work effectively, the learning environment in the classroom must be supportive. Students must feel comfortable and trust one another in order to provide honest and constructive feedback. Instructors who use group work and peer assessment frequently can help students develop trust by forming them into small groups early in the semester and having them work in the same groups throughout the term. This allows them to become more comfortable with each other and leads to better peer feedback. Self Assessment Students can become better language learners when they engage in deliberate thought about what they are learning and how they are learning it. In this kind of reflection, students step back from the learning process to think about their language learning strategies and their progress as language earners. Such self assessment encourages students to become independent learners and can increase their motivation. The successful use of student self assessment depends on three key elements:  ·Goal setting  ·Guided practice with assessment tools  ·Portfolios Goal setting Goal setting is essential because students can evaluate their progress more clearly when they have targets against which to measure their performance. In addition, students' motivation to learn increases when they have self-defined, and therefore relevant, learning goals. At first, students tend to create lofty long-range goals (â€Å"to speak Russian)† that do not lend themselves to self assessment. To help students develop realistic, short-term, attainable goals, instructors can use a framework like SMART goals outline shown in the popup window. One way to begin the process of introducing students to self-assessment is to create student-teacher contracts. Contracts are written agreements between students and instructors, which commonly involve determining the number and type of assignments that are required for particular grades. For example, a student may agree to work toward the grade of â€Å"B† by completing a specific number of assignments at a level of quality described by the instructor. Contracts can serve as a good way of helping students to begin to consider establishing goals for themselves as language learners. Guided practice with assessment tools Students do not learn to monitor or assess their learning on their own; they need to be taught strategies for self monitoring and self assessment. Techniques for teaching students these strategies are parallel to those used for teaching learning strategies (see Motivating Learners[->0]). The instructor models the technique (use of a checklist or rubric, for example); students then try the technique themselves; finally, students discuss whether and how well the technique worked and what to do differently next time. In addition to checklists and rubrics for specific communication tasks, students can also use broader self-assessment tools to reflect on topics they have studied, skills they have learned, their study habits, and heir sense of their overall strengths and weaknesses. An example of such a tool appears in the popup window. Students can share their self-assessments with a peer or in a small group, with instructions that they compare their impressions with other criteria such as test scores, teacher evaluations, and peers' opinions. This kind of practice helps students to be aware of their learning. It also informs the te acher about students' thoughts on their progress, and gives the teacher feedback about course content and instruction. Portfolios Portfolios are purposeful, organized, systematic collections of student work that tell the story of a student's efforts, progress, and achievement in specific areas. The student participates in the selection of portfolio content, the development of guidelines for selection, and the definition of criteria for judging merit. Portfolio assessment is a joint process for instructor and student. Portfolio assessment emphasizes evaluation of students' progress, processes, and performance over time. There are two basic types of portfolios:  ·A process portfolio serves the purpose of classroom-level assessment on the part of both the instructor and the student. It most often reflects formative assessment, although it may be assigned a grade at the end of the semester or academic year. It may also include summative types of assignments that were awarded grades.  ·A product portfolio is more summative in nature. It is intended for a major evaluation of some sort and is often accompanied by an oral presentation of its contents. For example, it may be used as a evaluation tool for graduation from a program or for the purpose of seeking employment. In both types of portfolios, emphasis is placed on including a variety of tasks that elicit spontaneous as well as planned language performance for a variety of purposes and audiences, using rubrics to assess performance, and demonstrating reflection about learning, including goal setting and self and peer assessment. Portfolio characteristics:  ·Represent an emphasis on language use and cultural understanding  ·Represent a collaborative approach to assessment Represent a student's range of performance in reading, writing, speaking, and listening as well as cultural understanding  ·Emphasize what students can do rather than what they cannot do  ·Represent a student's progress over time  ·Engage students in establishing ongoing learning goals and assessing their progress towards those goals  ·Measure each student's achievement while allowing for individu al differences between students in a class  ·Address improvement, effort, and achievement  ·Allow for assessment of process and product  ·Link teaching and assessment to learning [-;0] – http://www. nclrc. org/essentials/motivating/moindex. htm